Internet Addiction Amongst University Students Under COVID-19: Prevalence and Correlates
Main Article Content
Abstract
Under COVID-19, because of extensive online learning and the use of the internet for communication, there is a risk of intensification of Internet addiction (IA) in young people. Unfortunately, there are very few related studies in different Chinese contexts, including Hong Kong. In this study, we examined several research gaps in the literature with reference to university students in Hong Kong: a) prevalence of IA; b) socio-demographic factors related to IA; c) relationships between IA and other mental health problems and stressors (i.e., comorbidity); and protective factors for IA.
To address the above research issues, we conducted an online survey in early 2021 (N = 1,648) using validated instruments on IA, psychological well-being, and stress. Based on the Young Internet Addiction Scale, roughly half of the respondents could be considered as showing excessive IA symptoms. Regarding demographic correlates of IA, younger students and those who experienced personal financial difficulty showed higher IA levels, and there was no observed gender difference. There were positive relationships between IA symptoms and mental health problems (depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal behavior, and hopelessness) and stresses (difficulties encountered and unmet psychosocial needs), suggesting co-morbidity of IA. IA was also negatively associated with positive psychological attributes such as flourishing and emotional competence, which could be regarded as factors protecting young people from IA. Results are discussed with reference to the different ecological risks and protective factors in IA amongst young people in the Chinese context.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
Akgun, S., & Ciarrochi, J. (2003). Learned resourcefulness moderates the relationship between academic stress and academic performance. Educational Psychology, 23(3), 287-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341032000060129
Alavi, S. S., Maracy, M. R., Jannatifard, F., & Eslami, M. (2011). The effect of psychiatric symptoms on the internet addiction disorder in Isfahan’s University students. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences: The official journal of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, 16(6), 793-800.
Anand, N., Thomas, C., Jain, P. A., Bhat, A., Thomas, C., Prathyusha, P. V., Aiyappa, S., Bhat, S., Young, K., & Cherian, A. V. (2018). Internet use behaviors, internet addiction and psychological distress among medical college students: A multi-centre study from South India. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 71-77. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ajp.2018.07.020
Arpaci, I., Kesici, Ş., & Baloğlu, M. (2018). Individualism and internet addiction: The mediating role of psychological needs. Internet Research, 28(2), 293-314. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-11-2016-0353
Awaluddin, S. M. B., Chan, Y. Y., Yoep, N., Paiwai, F., Lodz, N. A., Muhammad, E. D., Mahmud, N. A., Wong, N. I., Nor, N. S. M., & Nik Abd Rashid, N. R. (2019). The association of internet addiction and perceived parental protective factors among Malaysian adolescents. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 31(8_suppl), 57S-64S. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539519872642
Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Ego depletion and self‐regulation failure: A resource model of self‐control. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(2), 281-284. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ALC.0000060879.61384.A4
Beck, A. T., Weissman, A., Lester, D., & Trexler, L. (1974). The measurement of pessimism: The hopelessness scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(6), 861-865.
Bhandari, P. M., Neupane, D., Rijal, S., Thapa, K., Mishra, S. R., & Poudyal, A. K. (2017). Sleep quality, internet addiction and depressive symptoms among undergraduate students in Nepal. BMC Psychiatry, 17, 106. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1275-5
Cai, H., Xi, H. T., Zhu, Q., Wang, Z., Han, L., Liu, S., Bai, W., Zhou, Y. J., Chen, L., Ge, Z. M., Ji, M., Zhang, H., Yang, B. X., Chen, P., Cheung, T., Ungvari, G. S., An, F. & Xiang, Y. T. (2021). Prevalence of problematic Internet use and its associated with quality of life among undergraduate nursing students in the later stage of COVID-19 pandemic era in China. The American Journal on Addictions, 30(6), 585-592. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajad.13216
Canan, F., Ataoglu, A., Ozcetin, A., & Icmeli, C. (2012). The association between Internet addiction and dissociation among Turkish college students. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53(5), 422-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.08.006
Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M. L., Ryan, J. A. M., Lonczak, H. S., & Hawkins, J. D. (2004). Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591(1), 98-124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716203260102
Chen, C., Dai, S., Shi, L., Shen, Y., & Ou, J. (2021). Associations between attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and internet gaming disorder symptoms mediated by depressive symptoms and hopelessness among college students. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 17, 2775-2782. http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S325323
Chen, H. C., Wang, J. Y., Lin, Y. L., & Yang, S. Y. (2020). Association of internet addiction with family functionality, depression, self-efficacy and self-esteem among early adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(23), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238820
Cheng, Y. S., Tseng, P. T., Lin, P. Y., Chen, T. Y., Stubbs, B., Carvalho, A. F., Wu, C. K., Chen, Y. Y., & Wu, M. K. (2018). Internet addiction and its relationship with suicidal behaviors: A meta-analysis of multinational observational studies. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 79(4), 9291. https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.17r11761
Chung, T. W., Sum, S. M., & Chan, M. W. (2019). Adolescent internet addiction in Hong Kong: Prevalence, psychosocial correlates, and prevention. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(6), S34-S43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.12.016
Cui, X., & Chi, X. (2021). The relationship between social support and Internet addiction among Chinese adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic: A multiple mediation model of resilience and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Psychology Research and Behaviour Management, 14, 1665-1674. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S305510
Davis, R. A. (2001). A cognitive-behavioral model of pathological Internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 17(2), 187–195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0747-5632(00)00041-8
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71-75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). New well-being measures: Short scales to access flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97, 143-156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y
Dol, K. S. (2016). Fatigue and pain related to internet usage among university students. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 28(4), 1233-1237. https://doi.org/10.1589/jpts.28.1233
Dou, D., & Shek, D. T. L. (2021). Concurrent and longitudinal relationships between positive youth development attributes and adolescent internet addiction symptoms in Chinese mainland high school students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 1937. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041937
Eaton, W. W., Muntaner, C., Smith, C., Tien, A., & Ybarra, M. (2004). Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale: Review and revision (CESD and CESD-R). In M. E. Maruish (ed.), The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment (pp. 363-377). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Evren, B., Dalbudak, E., & Evren, C., & Ozen, S. (2019). The relationship of Internet addiction symptom severity with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and impulsivity among Turkish university students. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 29(1), 83-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/24750573.2018.1505422
Fernández-Villa, T., Ojeda, J. A., Gómez, A. A., Carral, J. M. C., Delgado-Rodríguez, M., García-Martín, M., Jimenez-Mejias, E., Llorca, J., Monlina, A. J., Moncada, R. O., Valero-Juan, L. E., & Martín, V. (2015). Problematic internet use in university students: Associated factors and differences of gender. Adicciones, 27(4), 265-275. https://doi.org/10.20882/adicciones.751
Foa, E. B., Riggs, D., Dancu, C., & Rothbaum, B. (1993). Reliability and validity of a brief instrument for assessing post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6, 459-474. http://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490060405
Fumero, A., Marrero, R. J., Voltes, D., & Peñate, W. (2018). Personal and social factors involved in internet addiction among adolescents: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 86, 387-400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.005
Gamez-Guadix, M. (2014). Depressive symptoms and problematic Internet use among adolescents: Analysis of the longitudinal relationships from the cognitive-behavioral model. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(11), 714-719. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0226
Gavurova, B., Ivankova, V., Rigelsky, M., & Mudarri, T. (2022). Internet addiction in socio-demographic, academic, and psychological profile of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.944085
Gecaite-Stonciene J., Saudargiene, A., Pranckeviciene, A., Liaugaudaite, V., Griskova-Bulanova, I., Simkute, D., Naginiene, R., Dainauskas, L. L., Ceidaite, G., & Burkauskas, J. (2021). Impulsivity mediates associations between problematic Internet use, anxiety, and depressive symptoms in students: A cross-sectional COVID-19 study. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 634464. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.63446
Ghasemi, N., & Ghamarani, A. (2015). Evaluating the validity and reliability of flourishing scale and determining the relation between flourishing and academic achievement in students of medicine school. Iranian Journal of Medical Education, 15, 330-337.
Gudka, M., Gardiner, K. L., & Lomas, T. (2021). Towards a framework for flourishing through social media: a systematic review of 118 research studies. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2021.1991447
Ha, J. H., Yoo, H. J., Cho, I. H., Chin, B., Shin, D., & Kim, J. H. (2006). Psychiatric comorbidity assessed in Korean children and adolescents who screen positive for Internet addiction. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(5), 821. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v67n0517
Hassan, T., Alam, M. M., Wahab, A., & Hawlader, M. D. (2020). Prevalence and associated factors of internet addiction among young adults in Bangladesh. Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association, 95(1), 1-8. http://doi.org/10.1186/s42506-019-0032-7
Hazar, R., & Vikaliana, R. (2020). Analysis of the factors determining social media instragram as promotion media on the online shop in DKI Jakarta area. The Management Journal of Binaniaga, 5(1), 11-22. http://doi.org/10.33062/mjb.v5i01.371
Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44(2), 227-239. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466505X29657
Ho, R. C., Zhang, M. W., Tsang, T. Y., Toh, A. H., Pan, F., Lu, Y., Cheng, C., Yip, P. S., Lam, L. T., Lai, C. M., Watanabe, H., & Mak, K. K. (2014). The association between internet addiction and psychiatric co-morbidity: A meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 14(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-183
Hoffman, D. L., Novak, T. P., & Venkatesh, A. (2004). Has the Internet become indispensable? Communications of the ACM, 47(7), 37-42. https://doi.org/10.1145/1005817.1005818
Hong, W., Liu, R. D., Ding, Y., Zhen, R., Jiang, R., & Fu, X. (2022). Autonomy need dissatisfaction in daily life and problematic mobile phone use: The mediating roles of boredom proneness and mobile phone gaming. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 5305. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155305
Hsieh, Y., Shen, A. C., Wei, H., Feng, J., Huang, S., & Hwa, H. (2016). Associations between child maltreatment, PTSD, and Internet addiction among Taiwanese students. Computers in Human Behavior, 56, 209-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.048
Hui, L., Jin, R., Yuan, K., Bo, Z., Zhong, Z., Luo, Y., Ye, H., Huang, B., & Zhu, T. (2017). Effect of electro-acupuncture combined with psychological intervention on mental symptoms and P50 of auditory evoked potential in patients with internet addiction disorder. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 37(1), 43-48. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0254-6272(17)30025-0
Hui, B. P. H., Wu, A. M. S., Siu, N. Y. F., Chung, M., & Pun, N. (2019). The effects of need satisfaction and dissatisfaction on flourishing among young Chinese gamers: The mediating role of internet gaming disorder. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16, 4367.
Ip, P., Chim, D., Chan, K. L., Li, T. M., Ho, F. K. W., Van Voorhees, B. W., Tiwari, A., Tsang, A., Chan, C. W. L., Ho, M., Tso, W., & Wong, W. H. S. (2016). Effectiveness of a culturally attuned Internet-based depression prevention program for Chinese adolescents: A randomized controlled trial. Depression and Anxiety, 33(12), 1123-1131. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22554
Jahan, I., Hosen, I., AI Mamun, F., Kaggwa, M. M., Griffiths, M. D., & Mamun, M. A. (2021). How has the COVID-19 pandemic impacted internet use behaviors and facilitated problematic internet use? A Bangladeshi study. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 14, 1127. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S323570
Jiang, L. C., Yan, Y. J., Jin, Z. S., Hu, M. L., Wang, L., Song, Y., Li, N. N., Su, J., Wu, D. X., & Xiao, T. (2020). The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 in Chinese hospital workers: Reliability, latent structure, and measurement invariance across genders. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 247. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00247
Jiang, M., Zhao, Y., Wang, J., Hua, L., Chen, Y., Yao, Y., & Jin, Y. (2022). Serial multiple mediation of the correlation between Internet addiction and depression by social support and sleep quality of college students during the COVID-19 epidemic. Psychiatry Investigation, 19(1), 9-15. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2021.0147
Kardefelt-Winther, D. (2014a). A conceptual and methodological critique of internet addiction research: Towards a model of compensatory internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 31(1), 351-354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.059
Kardefelt-Winther, D. (2014b). Problematizing excessive online gaming and its psychological predictors. Computers in Human Behavior, 31(1), 118–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.017
Khan, M., A., Shabbir, F., & Rajput, T. A. (2017). Effect of gender and physical activity on Internet addiction in medical students. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 33(1), 191-194. https://doi.org/ 10.12669/pjms.331.11222
Khoshakhlagh, H., & Faramarzi, S. (2012). The relationship of emotional intelligence and mental disorders with Internet addiction in internet users university students. Addiction and health, 4(34), 133-141.
Klobas, J. E., McGill, T. J., Moghavvemi, S., & Paramanathan, T. (2018). Problematic and extensive YouTube use: First hand reports. Online Information Review, 43(2), 265-282. https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-01-2018-0032
Ko, C. H., Yen, J. Y., Chen, C. C., Chen, S. H., Wu, K., & Yen, C. F. (2006). Tridimensional personality of adolescents with internet addiction and substance use experience. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 51(14), 887-894. http://doi.org/10.1177/070674370605101404
Ko, C. H., Yen, J. Y., Yen, C. F., Chen, C. S., & Chen, C. C. (2012). The association between Internet addiction and psychiatric disorder: A review of the literature. European Psychiatry, 27(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.04.011
Kocak, O., Yilmaz, I., & Younis, M. Z. (2021). Why are Turkish university students addicted to the Internet? A moderated mediation model. Healthcare, 9(8), 953. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9080953
Koo, H. J., & Kwon, J.-H. (2014). Risk and protective factors of internet addiction: A meta-analysis of empirical studies in Korea. Yonsei Medical Journal, 55(6), 1691-1711. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2014.55.6.1691
Kumcagiz, H. (2019). Examination of Turkish university students’ Internet addiction in relation to their parental attachment styles and sociodemographics. Sage Open, 9(2), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019845946
Lam, L. T. (2014). Risk factors of Internet addiction and the health effect of internet addiction on adolescents: A systematic review of longitudinal and prospective studies. Current psychiatry reports, 16(11), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-014-0508-2
Lan, N. T. M., Kyesun, L., Dung, V., Huyen, N. T. T., Chan, H. V., Quy, N. T., Huong, T. T., Mai, M. T. H., Trang, V. T., & Hieu, N. V. (2020). Internet addiction among university students and its associated factors: A cross-sectional study among college students in Hanoi, Vietnam. Systematic Reviews in Pharmacy, 11(10), 590-596. https://doi.org/ 10.31838/srp.2020.10.88
Lei, W., Liu, K., Zeng, Z., Liang, X., Huang, C., Gong, K., He, W., Xiang, B., Zhang, J., Zheng, X., & Chen, J. (2020). The psychometric properties of the Chinese version internet gaming disorder scale. Addictive Behaviors, 106, 106392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106392
Li, G., Hou, G., Yang, D., Jian, H., & Wang, W. (2019). Relationship between anxiety, depression, sex, obesity, and internet addiction in Chinese adolescents: A short-term longitudinal study. Addictive Behaviors, 90, 421-427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.12.009
Li, J., Zhao, F., Bai, H., Lin, P., Shao, D., Sun, J., Zhang, H., & Cao, F. (2019). Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised in patients with cancer: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 97, 14-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2019.04.008
Li, S., Ren, P., Chiu, M. M., Wang, C., & Lei, H. (2021). The relationship between self-control and Internet addiction among students: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 735755. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.735755
Lin, I., Ko, C., Chang, Y., Liu, T., Wang, P., Lin, H. C., Huang, M. F., Yeh, Y. C., Chou, W. J., & Yen, C. (2014). The association between suicidality and Internet addiction and activities in Taiwanese adolescents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55(3), 504-510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.11.012
Lin, M. P. (2020). Prevalence of internet addiction during the COVID-19 outbreak and its risk factors among junior high school students in Taiwan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228547.
Mak, K. K., Lai, C. M., Ko, C. H., Chou, C., Kim, D. I., Watanabe, H., & Ho, R. C. M. (2014). Psychometric properties of the Revised Chen Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS-R) in Chinese adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(7), 1237-1245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9851-3
Mak, K. K., Jeong, J., Lee, H. K., & Lee, K. (2018). Mediating effect of internet addiction on the association between resilience and depression among Korean University students: A structural equation modeling approach. Psychiatry Investigation, 15(10), 962.
Mamun, M., A., Hossain, S., Siddique, A. B., Sikder, T., Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2019). Problematic Internet use in Bangladeshi students: The role of socio-demographic factors, depression, anxiety, and stress. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 44, 48-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2019.07.005
Marschall-Lévesque, S., Castellanos-Ryan, N., Parent, S., Renaud, J., Vitaro, F., Boivin, M., Tremblay, R. F., & Séguin, J. R. (2017). Victimization, suicidal ideation, and alcohol use from age 13 to 15 years: Support for the self-medication model. Journal of Adolescent Health, 60(4), 380-387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.09.019
Martins, M. V., Formiga, A., Santos, C., Sousa, D., Resende, C., Campos, R., Nogueira, N., Carvalho, P., & Ferreira, S. (2020). Adolescent internet addiction–role of parental control and adolescent behaviours. International Journal of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 7(3), 116-120.
Marzilli, E., Cerniglia, L., Ballarotto, G., & Cimino, S. (2020). Internet addiction among young adult university students: The complex interplay between family functioning, impulsivity, depression, and anxiety. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(21), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218231
Mellor, D., Vinet, E. V., Xu, X., Mamat, N. H. B., Richardson, B., & Roman, F. (2015). Factorial invariance of the DASS-21 among adolescents in four countries. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 31(2), 138-142. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000218
Miskulin, I., Simic, I., Pavlovic, N., Kovacevic, J., Fotez, I., Kondza, G., Palenkic, H., Bilic-Kirin, V., Kristic, M., & Miskulin, M. (2022). Personality traits of Croatian University students with Internet addiction. Behavioral Sciences, 12(6), 173. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12060173
Nalipay, M. J. N., & Ku, L. (2019). Hopelessness on depression symptoms through perceived burdensomeness. Mental & Physical Health, 122(5), 1618-1631. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118789044
Nestler, E. J. (2014). Epigenetic mechanisms of drug addiction. Neuropharmacology, 76, 259-268. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.04.004
Olawade, D. B., Olorunfemi, O. J., Wada, O. Z., Afolalu, T. D., & Enahoro, M. A. (2020). Internet addiction among university students during COVID-19 lockdown: Case study of institutions in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Human Development, 9(4), 165-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.15640/jehd.v9n4a17
Omoyemiju, M. A., & Popoola, B. I. (2021). Prevalence of internet addiction among university students in Nigeria. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 49(1), 132-139. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2020.1729339
Orsal, O., Orsal, L., Unsal, A., & Ozalp, S. (2013). Evaluation of Internet addiction and depression among university students. Procedia, Social and Behavioral Sciences, 82, 445-454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.291
Oyekcin, D. G., Sahin, E. M., & Aldemir, E. (2017). Mental health, suicidality and hopelessness among university students in Turkey. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 29, 185-189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2017.06.007
Özdemir, Y., Kuzucu, Y., & Ak, Ş. (2014). Depression, loneliness and Internet addiction: How important is low self-control? Computers in Human Behavior, 34, 284-290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.02.009
Pan, P., & Yeh, C. (2018). Internet addiction among adolescents may predict self-harm/suicidal behavior: A prospective study. The Journal of Pediatrics, 197, 262-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2017.06.007
Petraitis, J., Flay, B. R., & Miller, T. Q. (1995). Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces in the puzzle. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.67
Pies, R. (2009). Should DSM-V designate “Internet addiction” a mental disorder? Psychiatry (Edgmont), 6(2), 31-37.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
Roberts, L. D., & Seaman, K. (2018). Good undergraduate dissertation supervision: Perspectives of supervisors and dissertation coordinators. International Journal for Academic Development, 23(1), 28-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360144X.2017.1412971
Robertson, T. W., Yan, Z., & Rapoza, K. A. (2018). Is resilience a protective factor of internet addiction? Computers in Human Behavior, 78, 255-260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.09.027
Roessner, V. (2014). Large sample size in child and adolescent psychiatric research: The way of salvation? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 23, 1003-1004. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-014-0635-7
Romero-López, M., Pichardo, C., Hoces, I. D., & Garc í a-Berbén, T. (2021). Problematic Internet use among university students and its relationship with social skills. Brain Science, 11(10), 1301. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11101301
Sağar, M. E., & Hülya, K. Ö . K. (2022). Relationship between Internet addiction and sleep quality in university students. Bgimlilik Dergisi, 23(3), 1. https://doi.org/ 10.51982/bagimli.1033761
Salarvand, S., Albatineh, A. N., Dalvand, S., Karimi, E. B., & Gheshlagh, R. G. (2022). Prevalence of Internet addiction among Iranian university students: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 25(4), 213-222. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2021.0120
Salehi, M., Khalili, M. N., Hojjat, S. K., Salehi, M., & Danesh, A. (2014). Prevalence of Internet addiction and associated factors among medical students from Mashhad, Iran in 2013. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal, 16(5), e17256. https://doi.org/10.5812/ircmj.17256
Sami, H., Danielle, L., Lihi, D., & Elena, S. (2018). The effect of sleep disturbances and internet addiction on suicidal ideation among adolescents in the presence of depressive symptoms. Psychiatry Research, 267, 327-332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.03.067
Seki, T., Hamazaki, K., Natori, T., & Inadera, H. (2019). Relationship between Internet addiction and depression among Japanese university students. Journal of Affective Disorders, 256, 668-672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.06.055
Servidio, R., Bartolo, M. G., Palermiti, A. L., & Costabile, A. (2021). Fear of COVID-19, depression, anxiety, and their association with Internet addiction disorder in a sample of Italian students. Journal of Affective Disorders, 4, 100097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100097
Shaffer, H. J., Hall, M. N., & Bilt, J. V. (2000). “Computer addiction”: A critical consideration. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(2), 162-168. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087741
Shao, Y. J., Zheng, T., Wang, Y. Q., Liu, L., Chen, Y., & Yao, Y. S. (2018). Internet addiction detection rate among college students in the People’s Republic of China: A meta-analysis. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 12(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-018-0231-6
Shehata, W. M., & Abdeldaim, D. E. (2021). Internet addiction among medical and non-medical students during COVID-19 pandemic, Tanta University, Egypt. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(42), 59945-59952. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14961-9
Shek, D. T. L. (2002). Assessment of family functioning in Chinese adolescents: The Chinese family assessment instrument. International Perspectives on Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 2, 297-316. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1874-5911(02)80013-6
Shek, D. T. L. (2021). COVID-19 and quality of life: Twelve reflections. Applied Research Quality Life, 16, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09898-z
Shek, D. T. L., Dou, D., & Zhu, X. (2022). Prevalence and correlates of mental health of university students in Hong Kong: What happened one year after the occurrence of COVID-19? Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.857147
Shek, D. T. L., Dou, D., Zhu, X., Wong, T., & Tan, L. (2022). Need satisfaction and depressive symptoms among university students in Hong Kong during the COVID-19 pandemic: Moderating effects of positive youth development attributes. Frontier in Psychiatry, 13, 931404. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.931404
Shek, D. T. L., Lee, B. M., Sun, P. C. F., & Shek, E. Y. W. (in press). Internet addiction amongst Chinese adolescents in Mainland China before and after the pandemic. International Journal of Child and Adolescent Health.
Shek, D. T. L., Leung, J. T. Y., & Tan, L. (in press). Social policies and theories on quality of life under COVID-19: In search of the missing links. Applied Research Quality Life.
Shek, D. T. L., Siu, A. M. H., & Lee, T. Y. (2007). The Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale: A validation study. Research on Social Work Practice, 17(3), 380-391. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731506296196
Shek, D. T. L., Tang, V., Lam, C. M., Lam, M. C., Tsoi, K. W., & Tsang, K. M. (2003). The relationship between Chinese cultural beliefs about adversity and psychological adjustment in Chinese families with economic disadvantage. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 31(5), 427-443. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926180390228955
Shek, D. T. L., Tang, V. M. Y., & Lo, C. Y. (2008). Internet addiction in Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong: Assessment, profiles, and psychosocial correlates. The Scientific World Journal, 8, 776-787. https://doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2008.104
Shek, D. T. L., & Yu, L. (2012). Internet addiction phenomenon in early adolescents in Hong Kong. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 104304–104309. https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/104304
Shek, D. T. L., & Yu, L. (2012). Self-harm and suicidal behaviors in Hong Kong adolescents: Prevalence and psychosocial correlates. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 932540. https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/932540
Shek, D. T. L., & Yu, L. (2016). Adolescent Internet addiction in Hong Kong: Prevalence, change, and correlates. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 29(1), S22-S30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpag.2015.10.005
Shek, D. T. L., Zhu, X., Li, X., & Dou, D. (2022). Satisfaction with HyFlex teaching and law-abiding leadership education in Hong Kong university students under COVID-19. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 17, 2833-2858. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-022-10040-4
Shi, X., Wang, J., & Zou, H. (2017). Family functioning and internet addiction among Chinese adolescents: The mediating roles of self-esteem and loneliness. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 201-210. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.028
Song, W. J., & Park, J. W. (2019). The influence of stress on internet addiction: Mediating effects of self-control and mindfulness. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 17(4), 1063-1075. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-0051-9
Spada, M. M., Langston, B., Nikčević, A. V., & Moneta, G. B. (2008). The role of metacognitions in problematic Internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 2325-2335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2007.12.002
Stip, E., Thibault, A., Beauchamp-Chatel, A., & Kisely, S. (2016). Internet addiction, hikikomori syndrome, and the prodromal phase of psychosis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 7, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00006
Uysal, R. (2015). The predictive roles of social safeness and flourishing on problematic Facebook use. South African Journal of Psychology, 45(2), 182-193. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0081246314560010
Wallace, P. (2014). Internet addition disorder and youth: There are growing concerns about compulsive online activity and that this could impede students’ performance and social lives. EMBO reports, 15(1), 12-16. https://doi.org/10.1002/embr.201338222
Weidman, A. C., Fernandez, K. C., Levinson, C. A., Augustine, A. A., Larsen, R. J., & Rodebaugh, T. L. (2012). Compensatory internet use among individuals higher in social anxiety and its implications for well-being. In K. P. Rosenberg & L. C. Feder (Eds.), Personality and Individual Differences, 53(3), 191-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.03.003
Weinstein, A., Feder, L. C., Rosenberg, K. P., & Dannon, P. (2014). Internet addiction disorder: Overview and controversies. In Behavioral Addictions: Criteria, Evidence, and Treatment (pp.99-117). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407724-9.00005-7
Wong, T. Y., Yuen, K. S. L., & Li, W. O. (2015). A basic need theory approach to problematic Internet use and the mediating effect of psychological distress. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1562. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01562
Xia, Y., Fan, Y., Liu, T. H., & Ma, Z. (2021). Corrigendum: Problematic Internet use among residential college students during the COVID-19 lockdown: A social network analysis approach. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 10(4), 1068. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2021.10000
Yan, W., Li, Y., & Sui, N. (2014). The relationship between recent stressful life events, personality traits, perceived family functioning and internet addiction among college students. Stress and Health, 30(1), 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2490
Yang, X., Guo, W., Tao, Y., Meng, Y., Wang, H., Li, X., Zhang, Y., Zeng, J., Tang, W., Wang, Q., Deng, W., Zhao, L., Ma, X., Li, M., Xu, J., Li, J., Liu, Y., Tang, Z., Du, X., Li. T. (2022). A bidirectional association between Internet addiction and depression: A large-sample longitudinal study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 299, 416-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.12.013
Younes, F., Halawi, G., Jabbour, H., EI Osta, N., Karam, L., Hajj A., & Khabbaz, L. R. (2016). Internet addiction and relationships with insomnia, anxiety, depression, stress and self-esteem in university students: A cross-sectional designed study. PLoS ONE, 11(9), e0161126. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161126
Young, K. S. (1998). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1(3), 237-244. http://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.237
Yu, L., & Shek, D. T. L. (2018). Testing longitudinal relationships between Internet addiction and well-being in Hong Kong adolescents: Cross-lagged analyses based on three waves of data. Child Indicators Research, 11(5), 1545-1562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-017-9494-3
Yu, L., & Shek, D. T. L. (2021). Positive youth development attributes and parenting as protective factors against adolescent social networking addiction in Hong Kong. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 9, 649232. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2021.649232
Yu, L., & Zhou, X. (2021). Emotional competence as a mediator of the relationship between internet addiction and negative emotion in young adolescents in Hong Kong. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16(6), 2419-2438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-09912-y
Zhao, Y., Jiang, Z., Guo, S., Wu, P., Lu, Q., Xu, Y., Liu, L., Su, S., Shi, L., Que, J., Sun, Y., Sun, Y., Deng, J., Meng, S., Yan, W., Yuan, K., Sun, S., Yang, L., Ran, M., … Shi, J. (2021). Association of symptoms of attention deficit and hyperactivity with problematic Internet use among university students in Wuhan, China during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Affective Disorders, 286, 220-227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.02.078
Zhu, X., Shek, D. T. L., & Chu, C. K. M. (2021). Internet addiction and emotional and behavioral maladjustment in mainland Chinese adolescents: Cross-lagged panel analyses. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 781036. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.781036